WAR AND CAPTIVITY IN COLONIAL NEW ENGLAND

15. WAR AND CAPTIVITY

IN COLONIAL NEW ENGLAND (4/01/04)

Guns and war

New England colonies full record. Different aspects much studied.

With Indians, much on war, captivity.

Settler colonies like New England worldwide have bad record of harming native populations.

They are less interested than some colonists in controlling and exploiting Indians. We now know that there was more slaving of Indians than thought—shows how understanding changes—esp. in southern colonies. Puritans also some use of Indian labor.

But indigenous labor was not foundation of colonial economy. More interested in Indian lands.

New England, New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, Argentina, in different ways had terrible record of displacement and mistreatment or extermination of native populations.

In New England, as Cronon and Taylor show, there were several decades of usually peaceful interaction, co-existence. Trade, selling land, some labor.

They even lived together for brief periods, New England Algonkians too refuge from the Mohawks with colonists.

Some areas better than average Indian relations, Rhode Island, also with a Pilgrim rebel, named Morton.

But continuing tension and possibilities for trouble. Some would say just matter of time until war.

In particular, great population growth in settler population, decline in Indian population, continuing incremental dispossession of land. Also in effect bullying Indians. unstable situation.

Guns and military tactics

One might think that understanding of military technology, tactics, strategy would be one of best established historical points.

In fact controversies. Even with very intensively studied wars—Civil War, World War I—enduring controversies.

We know that technology and tactics often very important. Importance of repeating rifles, machine gun to late imperialism. “Light” weapons like AK47s today.

But also cultural dimension, not inevitable. Famous claim that Japanese delayed use of firearms for long time because they would wreck the Samurai system.

For North American Indians, several recent positions, disputes.

Very revealing about nature of historical enterprise.

One recent position historian, Michael Bellesisles, made radical claims.

Said gun culture late to develop in White America. Charlton Heston and others very upset, critical. But won major historical prize, much acclaim.

Then some began cast doubt on validity, even truth of evidence. Said some records used in research were distorted, even non-existent. Investigations, and the award was retracted. Major academic scandal.

Concerning Indians, Bellesisles suggests guns may have hurt their cause: they were adopted for reasons of prestige, copycats, would have done better to stick to bow.

Guns had strong psychological impact, but much less after all Indians adopted them. Bow was quieter, faster, and esp. not tied to white supplies of ammunition. Guns were expensive, hard to load. (Daniel Day Lewis in “Last of the Mohicans” grossly misleading.) Guns misfired, bad on rainy days. Whites palmed off bad guns on Indians.

Unclear how to assess these claims.

Another position, Patrick Malone, Skulking Way of War (on list of recommended books). Others before him. Emphasized impact of guns, intelligent Indian use of guns, eventual impact on colonial war-making.

Malone says guns couldn’t be dodged, made horrendous wounds.

Indian bows not as powerful as English longbows, couldn’t pierce armor.

So two opposed positions, both plausible, hard for us to assess.

Malone also analyses adoption of guns.

Colonial worries about Indians getting guns, there were laws prohibiting, but were subverted, exceptions made. Indians wanted guns for intertribal wars, hunting.

Indians also learned technology: already very adept with copper, flint-working. Making lead shot easy.

Indians learned to repair guns, to blacksmith. One major problem was powder. Even colonists did not make powder themselves. So notion that powder supply major weakness for Indians, esp. in protracted wars, correct.

Indians, according to Malone, also very fussy about kinds of guns.

Two kinds of gun at time: Matchlocks, older technology. Heavy, inaccurate, smoldering match. Saw in “Black Robe”.

Flintlocks newer, expensive, but much better.

Colonists stuck with matchlocks, but Indians insisted on flintlocks. Colonists very bad in use, Indians became experts.

Also Indians more effective, according to this view in forest warfare.

Traditionally, mixed methods.

Some fights in open, masses of men, showers of arrows, low casualties.

Stockades, with sieges and ambushes.

Especially forest fighting, with ambushes.

Colonists saw forest fighting as entirely random, individual—shows dangers of historical testimony—but some say Indians had well worked-out tactics.

In first major colonial conflict, King Phillip’s War, according to this view, colonialists at first blundered around, tried to use European tactics, not adapted to forest. Indians much more effective, skulking, ambushing.

Then Whites did better as they adopted Indian patterns, learned about forest, adopted ranger or guerrilla pattern. Sounds plausible.

Now third view. Guy Chet (see supplementary reading list.)

Says in fact previous view misinterpreted record.

Says that understanding distorted by self-serving memoirs of most famous colonial ranger, who exaggerated his own exploits and the significance of ranger patterns.

Chet says that many Indian successes came much more from attacks on lightly defended western towns; that scorched earth tactics, destruction of subsistence base crucial.

And that battles and defensive tactics much more important than previously claimed.

Colonists’ major weakness was not their use European war patterns but their incompetence in implementing them.

At very beginning of colonization, professional soldiers like Myles Standish were very effective, but within a few years, militia was mostly sloppy, untrained.

Concerning battles, previous interpretations had often emphasized attack: initial volley with guns, then run in, fight with edged weapons.

Chet says campaigns were strategically offense, but effective battle-fighting was tactically defensive: so long as colonial troops held ranks and were fairly well trained, traditional European patterns won battles.

Even if e.g. they were chasing enemy, once engaged in battle, goals was to make them attack you, destroy them from defensive position.

Can see that very different picture altogether of what was going on, what worked.

Very hard for non-experts to assess evidence. Shows complications of historical interpretation, even on what seem basic points.

Pequot War

In 1637 first Indian war, brief but nasty. After series of disturbances, combined Puritan-Pilgrim force moved against Pequots, Algonkians. Fortified village where Mystic, Connecticut is now. Guided by Indian allies, enemies of Pequots

Surrounded fort, invaded at dawn, complete surprise, lit whole village on fire,

as Indians ran out, massacred. Inner ring militia, outer Indian allies.

Killed women and children, maybe total 400.

Puritans justified in Biblical terms, little remorse.

They thought they assured peace by smashing the Pequot, object lesson for other Indians, but effect the opposite. Indians learned to fear colonists and to understand that if war came, it would be total.

King Phillip’s War

Great colonial war later in century.

Many books, articles. Much studied.

For long time blamed on Indians, but near-unanimity in 20^{th century that they the victims. Some say primary villains were the Plymouth colony, more insecure about land and position because separate from Mass Bay Colony and Rhode Island and its charter was threatened. Made them nervous about Indians to west of Plymouth, whether they would sell to other Puritans, harm Plymouth.}

Famous friendly Indian Massasoit had died, his successor Wamsutta (name of mills, towels) captured, hauled into Plymouth, because they were worried he selling land to others. He died on way home, not happy event.

His successor, Metacom, called Philip by Pilgrims, was hauled in, tried to make him agree never to sell to any other settlers. They coerced him into agreement, but Phillip was mad, perhaps plotting. A “praying Indian” informed on Phillip; informer killed, there was a quick trial for 3 accused Indians, one of whom fingered Phillip.

War started 1675. Spread all over New England. Used to be depicted as Indian conspiracy, but rather disconnected series of uprisings, often provoked by colonists. Phillip definitely not in charge of whole thing.

Colonists do badly at first. Unprepared for forest war.

Great fear of all Indians, including “praying Indians” and allies. Interned praying Indians on Deer Island.

One result, blundered about without guides, easily ambushed. Exception was Connecticut colonists, who used Indian allies.

Indians abandoned restraint, killed without mercy. Also western settlements exposed, very vulnerable.

Colonists soon began selling captives as slaves off to West Indies, didn’t improve tone of war. Indians ransomed white captives back, that was interpreted to to show that they were barbaric!

By 1676 Mass Bay leaders began to realize mistake, started using praying Indians and allies. Just a few scouts to keep them out of traps made a huge difference.

Many Indians had not joined in or on fence. Puritans got them on board. Also got Mohawk to harry them from west. No unity among Indians.

Started doing better in forest war.

No mercy, attack neutrals. Most of all scorched earth, destroy subsistence. Indians starving, then epidemics.

Crucial white advantages: secure base, with sea at back, reinforcements. Able to destroy Indian fields, keep them on run

Result was Indian resistance destroyed. Great part of population died, shipped off as slaves. A few descendants, but weak remnants, pockets.

Tremendous losses among whites before won. By percentage of population, worst war in North American history.

First great Indian war, start of long shameful history.

Captivity

Interactions between two sides, as have already seen, not just economic and political but meaningful

Include missionization, marriage and sex, torture, killing, capture—all full of meaning.

Try to make sense of what going on; trying to impose meanings on it.

Also using certain events and customs and supposed character traits to stand for important meanings about the other, or to handle contradictions or ideological dilemmas

Also been argued that figure out own identity—collective identity as people—through contrast with others

Certain things charged with symbolism and meaning

Saw with killing and torture in movie, with Jesuits

Also captivity. Both sides taking captives, but was mostly whites captured by Indians that emphasized

Very beginning: John Smith, supposed rescue by Pocahontas, is a captivity story

The Indian slave trade

Great imbalance. Many more Indians captured, and part of a commercial trade.

But no big deal made of it.

Esp. in South in earliest period.

Full extent just now being realized. (See book in supplementary reading list.)

See Taylor in chapter on Carolinas. To get guns, Indians drawn in as slave raiders.

Would seem to indicate that Europeans saw Indians as radically different, but Colley argues that merely extension of what did in Europe: Cromwell packed defeated Irish rebels off to W. Indies.

Also slaving and captivity during New England Indian wars

“Praying Indians” suspected of throwing lot in with rebels packed off to Deer island, where sewage plant now is. Very like Japanese internment. Great suffering.

Also captured Indians packed off to West Indies as slaves. Huge deal made of two Puritan girls briefly captured in Pequot War, then Pequots who survived all sent off with relatively little fuss.

But Colley argues that quite significant numbers of whites captured, not at all rare:

On frontier further south, over ten-year period, 1755-1765, 2700 whites taken

No one knows total numbers

White captives

Captivity is a charged event. Full of meaning. Very emotional to write and think about.

Not just interaction between two sides, but one taken inside, taken over by other. Intimate, powerful.

About national and ethnic differences; ethnicity, race; power; gender

We see in own time. In 20th century numerous examples: prisoners of war (literature of Allies in Germany; movies on prisoners of Japanese; now attention to internment of Japanese in U.S.); Iranian prisoners and Contragate: Patty Hearst; Aldo Moro; others.

New book by Linda Colley (see supplementary reading list) on Europeans who captured by North African corsairs, made slaves; British captives in India; as well as in colonial North America.

First important white captive to write about experience was Mary Rowlandson, what you have been reading. Became hugely important: being read in at least one other course this Spring.

Rowlandson narrative cannot be read just for events it tells us about, must be seen as text imposing meanings on the events

Started tradition of captivity narratives. Other Puritan ones, more tightly controlled by Puritan preachers than Rowlandson’s. Then many more. Industry. Some were fakes. In way fakes just as revealing as real ones of ideology.

Absorbed into literature. Cooper’s novels heavily influenced.

Great fascination. Study by historians, students of literature.

Agreement that very important, that about race and gender and power

But strikingly different takes on subject, shows how difficult and subjective.

Rowlandson’s Story

Religion informing story at multiple levels:

Providence, God’s will explaining events.

Even when not rescued.

Her use of Bible as divination, tool to understand situation.

For Rowlandson, the story is a kind of “conversion” narrative or testimonial. Story of testing by experience, how changed.

For preachers, was form of narrative of the wonder’s of God’s providence. Cotton Mather published providential stories, even people involved in witch craze.

She and colonists as a whole deserve punishment. Her pride/vanity. Puritans fallen into sin. But still infinitely better than Indians. Strange combination of pride and self-doubt.

How structured? “removes” Is there a symbolic significance to word?

Suggested kind of displacement, like Biblical exile. Puritans already prone to metaphorizing selves as Israelites among enemy peoples in desert.

Are there issues that Rowlandson is trying to deal with in story? Anything she is trying not to say or that she is saying did not occur?

Lepore says important that she feels guilt over letting self be captured.

Showing that had not been touched sexually. (As noted with “Black Robe”, eastern Indians seldom used captives sexually, unless later married them; not so in West.) Important she let readers know.

Even more that she had not “gone Indian”, converted to their way of life. Felt as danger.

Remarks on how hated food.

One male captive who punished when recaptured. Suspected of treachery or at least not resisting.

Within general Indian badness, what are Weetamoo’s faults? Suggested she counterpart of Rowlandson, sin that Rowlandson must struggle against.

Colley and Lepore suggest that also positive affirmation that still English.

Also, insistent contrast between Indians and English, it has been suggested, is not just static reflection of already existing attitudes—it is also an active part of process by which Indians “othered”, i.e. portrayed as totally different, bad. Text as part of process.

Are there ways that Rowlandson loses control of her story or that it is not all consistent?

Some good or partially good Indians. Quinnapin Even bad individuals suggest that they vary, not all same. Examples of kindness.

What besides Indian goodness subverts message, portrayal of Indians as totally alien?

At one point she mistakes them for whites, because dressed like whites.

She enters into economic relations with them.

She knows some of them from before, knows some Indian words. Suggests inter-relationships, not total separation.

Who are the important individual Indians in story?

Philip, Quinnapin, Weetamoo.

She doesn’t give reader full political significance of their roles or hers.

She not ordinary captive, wife of preacher.

Weetamoo was widow of an important chief and herself a leader. When she died, her body was displayed as trophy just as with killed male Indian leaders.

Rowlandson criticizes Weetamoo for dressing up and gifts etc., doesn’t seem to realize this was part of ceremonies for chiefs. Not that Rowlandson didn’t know she was leader, certainly knew very well by time wrote narrative, but damned if she was going to acknowledge it.

What does it mean that Rowlandson was a woman? Almost everyone who comments says important, but interpret it in different ways.

Colley points out that captivity narratives of prisoners of Barbary pirates mostly men, preceded American narratives and some of those who helped publish Rowlandson probably k new Barbary narratives. But significant in this case that families, women and children.

Highly unusual for woman to write or publish, or for that matter, even to speak in public.

Only 4 women in whole 18th century were ever published, Rowlandson only one during her own lifetime.

Very strong insistence on women’s silence.

Rowlandson special case because wife of preacher, preface justified it that way.

May be that woman good symbol in some ways, passive, can represent Puritan self threatened by the other/the wilderness/the world. But to extent she portrayed as resisting, may be conflict with gender role.

One famous later story, woman who kills and scalps captors, became famous, but over top, not in gender role.

Also famous story, Mary Jemison, stays with Seneca, has much positive to say about them, subversive.

So many critics concerned with complicated relations between male/female, Indian/English. Also with sexuality, even if nothing overt occurred.

May also have factual element: Men much much more likely to be killed rather than kept in captivity.

Jill Lepore contrasts Samuel Printer, “Praying” Indian who set Rowlandson’s story in type. He captivity on Deer Island. When released, had to prove loyalty, redeem self. So symmetry with Rowlandson. But she did with story, not open to him. Indian side silence. Rather had to bring scalps.

Colley shows how captivity literature not very important in England until later, 18th century, when British troops in considerable numbers for French and Indian war. Then savagery literature, deal with brutality of colonial war, Indian strongly othered.

The threat of captives going Indian

Axtell wrote very interesting chapter on this (see supplementary reading list).

Quite a few white captives wanted to stay with Indians, didn’t want to return.

Particularly enjoyed relative freedom of Indian society. Moccasins as symbol, much more comfortable and flexible than boots.

Ordeal through which captives put, which could end for lucky in incorporation, acceptance, could bind them emotionally.

Very upsetting to families, to settler society when they didn’t want to go back.

Danger of going native confronts all colonial societies.

French-English captive conversion struggles

Also crisis with captives who turned over to French in Canada, converted to Catholicism. Didn’t become Indians but renounced Protestantism, English identity.

Series of colonial wars between French and English, captives taken by both side imp part of struggle

Analyzed by Axtell (see supplementary reading list)

Says 1600 taken captive by French between late 17th and late 18th century

Contest between cultures. See Demos (supplementary reading list)

Both sides saw captives won over as crucial test

But New England had weaker missionary tradition. Also most of French captives single men. Not needed in New England, so weak efforts to convert

In New France could really use captives to stay, esp. women and men with skills

Major effort on French side. Some coercion. But also what Moonies have called love bombing: previous converts esp. zealous and persuasive.

Prisoners grateful to be freed from Indians, in hands of whites. A number fell in love while there. They knew trip back could be rough. Proved vulnerable to conversion without own ministers to help resist. Tough, theologically knowledge adults held out best, kids push-overs.

Very upsetting back home to know that kin had become Catholic.

See discussion questions on Rowlandson’s narrative.

THE WARS OF THE ROSES

FURTHER SUBJECT 8/30
The Wars of the Roses, c.1450- c.1500
Bibliography
This Bibliography is
© University of Oxford,
History Faculty
2007
This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
CONTENTS
List of Set Texts
General Reading
Interpreting the Sources
Class 1 : The 1450s
Class 2 : 1461-71
Class 3 : 1483-7
Class 4 : Reconstruction under Edward IV and Henry VII
Class 5 : The Practicalities of Warfare
Class 6 : Reform and the Common Weal
Class 7 : Power in the Localities
Class 8 : Overview
List of Set Texts
Where there is a choice, students are free to use any available version of these items,
unless otherwise indicated (AV = alternative version). The top version in each list is
the best, or most up-to-date.
Items marked with a 􀂑 are available in a document pack which can be purchased
from the History Faculty.
[1] Chronicles
1. An English Chronicle, 1377-1461. A New Edition, ed. W. Marx (Woodbridge,
2003), pp. 72-100 (covering 1453-61)
AV: An English Chronicle…, ed. J. S. Davies, Camden soc., old ser., 64 (London, 1856), pp. 70-
110.
Camden soc. version online: (Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse, Uni of Michigan, Ann
Arbor)
http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=cme;cc=cme;view=toc;idno=ACV5981.0001.001
2. 􀂑 ‘Vitellius AXVI Chronicle’, in Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford
(Oxford, 1905), pp. 158-219 (covering 1450-1497)
3. ‘“Warkworth’s” Chronicle’, in Death and Dissent. Two Fifteenth-Century
Chronicles, ed. L. Matheson (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 93-124 (covering 1461-
73)
AV: A Chronicle of the First Thirteen Years of the Reign of King Edward the Fourth by John
Warkworth, D.D., ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camden soc, old ser., 6 (London, 1839), pp. 1-27
AV: K. Dockray, ed., Three Chronicles of the Reign of Edward IV (Gloucester, 1988), pp. 23-
49.
4. The Crowland Chronicle Continuations, 1459-1486, ed. N. Pronay and J. Cox
(London, 1986), pp. 109-99 (covering 1459-86)
Note: A nineteenth-century translation is available online through the Richard III Society. It is
not an acceptable alternative.
5. The Anglica Historia of Polydore Vergil, ed. and tr. D. Hay, Camden Soc., 3rd ser.,
74 (1950), pp. 3-33, 51-9, 63-111 (covering 1485-7, 1492-7)
Note: a version of a 1555 printed edition is available online at
http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/polverg/, but is not recommended.
- 2 -
This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
6. 􀂑 ‘Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV in England and the Finall Recoverye of
his Kingdomes from Henry VI’, ed. J. Bruce, Camden Soc., old ser., 1 (London,
1838)
AV: the same online: http://www.r3.org/bookcase/arrival1.html (some very minor transcription
errors)
AV: K. Dockray, ed., Three Chronicles of the Reign of Edward IV (Gloucester, 1988), pp. 147-
86.
7. The Usurpation of Richard III (Mancini), ed. and tr. C. A. J. Armstrong (Oxford,
1969) (repr. by Alan Sutton, Gloucester, 1984)
8. Philippe de Commynes. Memoirs, ed. and tr. M. C. E. Jones (Harmondsworth,
1972), pp. 80-90 (Book I. chs. 5-7: War of the Public Weal; Wars of the Roses),
141-5 (II. 8: interviews between princes), 179-97 (III. 4-7: 1469-71), 236-48
(IV. 4-8: 1475), 339-56 (V. 18-20: general reflections on mid-15thC politics),
396-8 (VI. 8: Richard III)
AV: the same online: http://www.r3.org/bookcase/de_commynes/index.html (arranged by books
and chapters, as above)
[2] Manifestoes, Pamphlets, Treatises, Speeches
NOTE: some set manifestoes appear in other portions of set text, as follows:
Manifestoes of 1459-60, in item 1, English Chronicle, ed. Marx, pp. 79-80, 82-5, 86-8
Manifestoes of 1450 (York) and 1452 in item 24, Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner, vol i., pp. 80-2,
84, 96-8
Manifestoes of 1455 in item 27, Parliament Rolls, 1455, nos. 19-20.
9. Manifestoes of Jack Cade and his men: I. M. W. Harvey, Jack Cade’s Rebellion of
1450 (Oxford, 1991), pp. 186-91
AV: two of these appear in Kekewich, ed., John Vale’s Book, pp. 204-6, with the third in J. D.
Gairdner, ed., Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles, Camden Soc., new ser., 28 (London, 1880),
pp. 94-9.
10. Manifesto of the earl of Warwick and others, 1459: M. L. Kekewich et al., eds.,
The Politics of Fifteenth-Century England. John Vale’s Book (Stroud, 1995),
pp. 208-10
11. The reconciliation of Margaret of Anjou and her son with Warwick and Clarence
(‘The Maner and Guyding…’): Kekewich, John Vale’s Book, pp. 215-18.
AV: This item and 12 are in H. Ellis, ed., Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 2nd
series, 4 vols. (London, 1827), vol. 1, pp. 132-9
12. Proclamation by Warwick and Clarence, 1470: Kekewich, John Vale’s Book, pp.
218-19.
13. Manifestoes of Henry Tudor (1483), Lambert Simnel (1487) and Perkin Warbeck
(1497): A. F. Pollard, The Reign of Henry VII from Contemporary Sources, 3
vols. (London, 1913-14), vol. I, pp. 3-6, 50, 150-5
14. Gilson, J. P., ‘A defence of the proscription of the Yorkists in 1459’, English
Historical Review, 26, 1911, pp. 512-25
AV: the same online: http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/XXVI/CIII/512
15. 􀂑 Sir John Fortescue, ‘Replicacion’ against the claim of the house of York:
Kekewich, John Vale’s Book, pp. 202-3
AV: Governance (item 16, below), pp. 353-4.
16. 􀂑 The Governance of England, by Sir John Fortescue, ed. C. E. Plummer
(Oxford, 1885), pp. 109-57
- 3 -
This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
AV: modern English translation in S. C. Lockwood, Sir John Fortescue. On the Laws and
Governance of England, Cambridge, 1997)
AV Plummer’s edition online: (Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse, Uni of Michigan,
Ann Arbor)
http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/textidx?
c=cme;cc=cme;view=toc;idno=AEW3422.0001.001
17. 􀂑 Sir John Fortescue, ‘Declaracion upon Certayn Wrytinges’ in T. Fortescue,
Lord Clermont, ed., Sir John Fortescue, Knight. His Life, Works and Family, 2
vols (London, 1869), vol. 1, pp. 523-44.
18. 􀂑 ‘A speech addressed to the commons in parliament’, 1472-5: J. B. Sheppard,
Literae Cantuarienses, III, Rolls ser. (London, 1889), pp. 274-85.
19. Bishop John Russell, draft sermons to parliament, 1483-4: S. B. Chrimes, English
Constitutional Ideas in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, 1936), pp. 167-91.
20. 􀂑 William Worcester, The Boke of Noblesse, ed. J. G. Nichols, Roxburghe Club
(London, 1860), pp. 1-11, 56-68, 76-82
21. The Tree of Commonwealth, by Edmund Dudley, ed. D. M. Brodie (Cambridge,
1948) pp. 31-50
AV: an online version of an 1859 edition appears at
http://klausjames.tripod.com/treeofcommonwealth.html. It uses record script and is less easy to
read than Brodie’s edition.
[3] Letters etc.
22. The Plumpton Letters and Papers, ed. J. Kirby, Camden Soc., 5th series, 8
(London, 1996), nos. 3, 13, 16, 18-19, 28, 39, 42-3, 79, 87, 107, 121, 123, 142
Note: the 1839 edition of the Plumpton Correspondence, in the Camden Society old series, is not
a satisfactory alternative.
23. 􀂑 The Stonor Letters and Papers, ed. C. L. Kingsford, Camden Soc., 2 vols, 3rd
series, 29-30 (London, 1919), nos. 112, 172, 201, 219, 230, 239, 243-4, 319-20,
330-1, 333.
AV: C. Carpenter, Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and Papers, (Cambridge, 1996) – same numbers.
24. 􀂑 The Paston Letters, ed. J. D. Gairdner, Library edn., 6 vols. (London, 1904) i,
pp. 80-2, 84, 96-8, and nos. 108, 121, 123, 142-3, 148-50, 170, 193, 235, 283-5,
287, 299, 322, 365-6, 377, 400, 410, 415, 430, 449-50, 455, 463, 470, 477, 480,
484, 509, 513, 533, 618, 684, 716, 719, 724, 730, 736, 753, 758-9, 770-1, 774-5,
777
AV: N. Davis, Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1958-2005),
is a superior edition, which is unfortunately arranged by correspondent, rather than
chronologically, as in Gairdner. Part III of this work, ed. R. W. Beadle and C. F. Richmond,
Early English Text Soc., s.s. 22 (Oxford, 2005) contains a concordance on p. lxx ff, enabling
readers to find where in Davis the letters numbered above can be found. A revised, up-to-date,
chronology of the letters appears in ibid., p. xxxix ff.
25. 􀂑 ‘Narrative of Robert Pylkington’, in Report on Manuscripts in Various
Collections II, Historical Manuscripts Commission, vol. 55 (London, 1903), 28-
56, being an account of the Pilkington-Ainsworth dispute, 1470s-1511. ?
26. York House Books, 1461-1490, ed. L. C. Attreed, 2 vols. (Stroud, 1991), pp. 242,
281-6, 290-2, 296, 359-60, 368-72, 377-9, 390-3, 471-85, 550-1, 555, 569-73,
712-14, 733-9
- 4 -
This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
[4] Parliamentary Material
27. The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, ed. C. Given-Wilson et al. Internet
version, accessed through Oxlip (http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/oxlip/):
1449/50: nos. 17-47, 49 (articles against Suffolk, impeachment, Suffolk’s
defence); 53 (act of resumption)
1453/4: nos. 33-8 (articles of York, appointment of protector) 63 (attainder of
Cade)
1455: nos. 18-25 (declaration and pardon of Yorkists, oath to king) 35-6
(concerning the need for a protector), 41 (appointment of council) 47 (act of
resumption)
1459: no. 7 (attainder of York and others)
1460: no. 8 (repeal of acts of 1459 parliament); 10-30 (title of duke of York;
act of accord; provision for York)
1461: nos. 7-15 (commendation of Edward IV, his title, forfeiture of Henry
VI, resumption of grants since 1399, exceptions), 17-27 (attainder of the
Lancastrians), 38-9 (king’s speech, act on liveries), 41 (petitions and act
concerning status of acts made 1399-1461).
1463: nos. 28 (second attainder of Somerset) 43 (petition of John de Vere for
reversal of act of 1388 – shows manipulation of history, desire of former
Lancastrians to be reconciled etc)
1467: nos. 7 (king’s speech to commons, promising to live of his own), 8 (act
of resumption), 13 (petition of Sir Thomas Tresham for full restoration), 15-16
(commons’ closing observations and chancellor’s response), 24-9 (sermon of
Bishop Stillington on justice), 41 (act concerning liveries)
1472: nos. 8-10 (grants by commons [of 13,000 archers], and by lords, and
statement of speaker about disorder)
1478: Appx 1 (accusations against Clarence); no. 34 (annulment of acts of
1470-1 parliament)
1483: no. 16 (act preserving royal rights of wardship in the Duchy of
Lancaster, even where enfeoffments to use have been made)
1484: nos. 1[5] (royal title of Richard III), 3[7] (attainders following
Buckingham’s rebellion), 18[22] (act cancelling benevolences)
1485: roll1 nos. 1 (chancellor’s speech), 5 (Henry VII’s title), 7 (reversal of
Richard III’s attainders), 8 (attainder of Richard III etc), 15[20] (oath against
unlawful retaining), 16[21] (restoration of Henry VI); roll 2 (act of
resumption)
1487: top item (chancellor’s speech); nos. 17 (act against maintenance [‘Star
Chamber Act’]), 23 (act against retaining of royal officers), 26-7 (acts
providing for investigations in the royal household, in order to protect the
king’s counsellors)
1489: no. 41 (act concerning Justices of the Peace and the enforcement of the
laws)
1491: top item (chancellor’s speech); no. 15 (attainder of John Hayes, showing
perceived links between Yorkist renegades and the French)
1495: top item (chancellor’s speech); nos. 41 (‘De Facto Act’), 43 (act against
riots), 58 (act requiring attendance of the king’s servants in his wars)
28. Diary of the Colchester MPs at the Parliament of 1485 in N. Pronay and J. Taylor,
Parliamentary Texts of the Later Middle Ages (Oxford, 1980), pp. 177-93
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
[5] Cultural Material
29. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, described in R. A. Brown, H. M. Colvin and
A. J. Taylor, The History of the King’s Works, vol. I (1963), pp. 269-78, plates
18, 20; and vol. III, ed. Colvin et al. (1975), pp. 187-95 and plate 17.
30. St George’s Chapel, Windsor, described in Colvin et al., King’s Works, II (1963),
884-8 and III (1975), pp. 311-15 and plate 21
31. Henry VII Chapel, Westminster, described in Colvin et al., King’s Works, III, pp.
210-22 and plates 14-17
32. The Towton mass grave, described in Blood and Roses: the Archaeology of a
Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton, AD 1461, ed. V. Fiorato, A. Boylston
and C. Knüsel (Oxford, 2000).
33. The ‘Edward IV Roll’ (Philadelphia Free Library MS Lewis E201), being a
pedigree roll from Edward IV’s reign, showing Edward’s claim to the thrones of
England, France and Castile, visible, in sections, with editorial, at
http://www.library.phila.gov/medieval/edward.htm. Or all in one go at
http://www.r3.org/bookcase/misc/edward4roll/frame.html
34. 􀂑 The Rous Roll, with an historical introduction, ed. C. D. Ross (Gloucester,
1980)
AV: J. Rows, Thys rol was laburd…, ed. W. Courthope et al. (1859) (This is the edition
republished by Ross in 1980. There is a copy in the Bodleian).
35. ‘A York Pageant, 1486’, by A. H. Smith, London Mediaeval Studies (1939), text
on pp. 386-98.
Note: the plans for the pageant, drawn up by the city government, appear both here and in the set
sections of the York House Books. This article also contains an eyewitness account of events,
written by someone in the king’s party.
36. The Receyt of the Ladie Kateryne, ed. G. Kipling, EETS, no. 296 (Oxford, 1990),
1-3, 12-38 (i.e. 1501 pageant and other celebrations to mark wedding of
Katharine of Aragon to Prince Arthur)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
General Reading
Introductory and/or overview works on later medieval England
S. B. Chrimes, C. D. Ross & R. A. Griffiths Fifteenth Century England (1972)
S. J. Gunn Early Tudor Government, 1485–1558 (1995)
Gerald Harriss Shaping the Nation: England, 1360-1461 (2005)
J. R. Lander Government and Community, 1450-1509 (1980)
J.R. Lander The Limitations of Late Medieval Monarchy (1989)
W. M. Ormrod Political Life in Medieval England, 1300–1450 (1995)
A. J. Pollard Late Medieval England, 1399–1509 (2000)
S. H. Rigby (ed.) A Companion to Britain in the Late Middle Ages (2003)
R. H. Britnell The Closing of the Middle Ages? England, 1471–1529 (1997)
Introductory and/or overview works on themes in fifteenth-century
politics (see also Classes 4-7 below)
C. A. J. Armstrong Some examples of the distribution and speed of news at the
time of the Wars of the Roses’ in Essays presented to F M
Powicke (1948) or in his England, France and Burgundy in the
Fifteenth Century (1983)
A. L. Brown The Governance of Late Medieval England, 1272–1461 (1989)
G. L. Harriss ‘Political Society and the Growth of Government in Late Medieval
England’, Past and Present, 138 (Feb 1993)
K. B. McFarlane The Nobility of Later Medieval England (1973)
R. A. Griffiths ‘The Sense of Dynasty…’ in Charles Ross, ed., Patronage,
Pedigree and Power (1979) and see M. Levine, Tudor Dynastic
Problems, 1460-1571 (1973)
V. J. Scattergood Politics & Poetry in the Fifteenth Century (1972)
J. A. F. Thomson (ed.) Towns and Townspeople (1988)
D. Starkey ‘The age of the household: politics, society and the arts’ in S.
Medcalf (ed.) The Context of English Literature: the Later Middle
Ages (1981)
D. A. L. Morgan ‘The House of Policy: the political role of the Late Plantagenet
Household, 1422–1485’, in D.R. Starkey (ed.), The English
Court from the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War (1987)
J. Laynesmith The Last Medieval Queens. English Queenship, 1445-1503
(2004)
B. Thompson ‘Prelates and Politics from Winchelsey to Warham’ in Clark
and Carpenter, eds., Fifteenth Century 4: Political Culture in
Late Medieval Britain (2004) (and see also R. G. Davies’ essay
in Pollard, ed. Wars of Roses)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Discussions of the historiography of the fifteenth century
J. R. Lander ‘The Dark Glass of the Fifteenth Century’, in his Conflict and
Stability in Fifteenth Century England (1969)
C. Carpenter ‘Political and Constitutional History before and after
McFarlane’, in R. Britnell & A. J. Pollard, The McFarlane
Legacy (1995)
S. J. Gunn Early Tudor Government, 1485–1558 (1995), introduction
A. J. Pollard Late Medieval England, 1399–1509 (2000), introduction.
Edward Powell ‘After “After McFarlane”: the poverty of patronage and the
case for constitutional history’, in D. Clayton et al. (eds),
Trade, Devotion and Governance (1994)
Colin Richmond ‘After McFarlane’, History, 68 (1983)
John Watts ‘Introduction: History, the Fifteenth Century and the
Renaissance’, in idem (ed.), The End of the Middle Ages?
(1998)
C. Carpenter ‘Introduction: Political Culture, Politics and Cultural History’,
in Clark and Carpenter, eds., Fifteenth Century 4: Political
Culture in Late Medieval Britain (2004)
Works dealing with the Wars of the Roses
C. Carpenter The Wars of the Roses (1997)
A. J. Pollard The Wars of the Roses (1988), 2nd edn (2005)
J. Gillingham The Wars of the Roses (1981)
A. Goodman The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society,
1452–97 (1981)
K. B. McFarlane ‘The Wars of the Roses’, in idem, England in the Fifteenth
Century (1981) or Procs. Brit. Acad. 50 (1964)
A.J. Pollard (ed.) The Wars of the Roses (1995), collection of essays, notably
Britnell on the economic context, Horrox on personalities,
Watts on political ideas, R.G. Davies on the church, Cliff
Davies on the European context and Richmond on visual
culture.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Interpreting the Sources
Chronicles
C. Given-Wilson Chronicles. The Writing of History in Medieval England
(2004) (focuses on 13th-14th Cs, but has lots of points of general
value on chronicles)
M.-R. McLaren The London Chronicles of the Fifteenth Century: a Revolution
in English Writing (2002).
C. L. Kingsford English Historical Literature in the Fifteenth Century (1913)
remains useful, though McLaren corrects him on London
chronicles
A. Gransden ‘Politics and Historiography in the Wars of the Roses’, in
Medieval Writing in the Christian and Islamic World, ed. D O
Morgan; see also her Historical Writing in England, c.1307 to
the Early Sixteenth Century (1982)
J. A. F. Thomson ‘Warkworth’s Chronicle Reconsidered’, EHR, 116 (2001)
J. Blanchard Commynes, L’Européen (1996)
R. F. Green ‘The Short Version of “The Arrival of Edward IV”’, Speculum,
56 (1981), and also L. Visser-Fuchs ‘Edward IV’s “Memoir
on Paper” to Charles, Duke of Burgundy: the So-Called “Short
Version of the Arrivall”’, Nottingham Med. Studs., 36 (1992)
A. Hanham Richard III and his Early Historians, 1483–1535 (1975)
M. McKisack Medieval History in the Tudor Age (1971), ch. 5
P. Burke The Renaissance Sense of the Past (1969)
D. Hay Polydore Vergil : Renaissance Historian and Man of Letters
(1952)
M. A. Hicks ‘Crowland’s World : A Westminster View of the Yorkist Age’,
History, 90 (2005). More discussion of the authorship of the
Crowland Chronicle appears in Ricardian vii (1985) and (1987)
See also, generally, the introductions to the editions of the set texts.
Manifestoes and Treatises
M. Kekewich et al. The Politics of Fifteenth-Century England: John Vale’s Book
(1995). Chapters by Watts and Richmond discuss much of the
manifesto literature; Kekewich discusses Fortescue; Sutton and
Visser-Fuchs discuss John Vale’s commonplace book as a text.
D. Grummitt ‘Deconstructing Cade’s Rebellion: Discourse and Politics in the
Mid-Fifteenth Century’, in The Fifteenth Century 6, ed. L.
Clark (2006)
I. Harvey ‘Was there Popular Politics in Fifteenth-Century England’, in
A. J. Pollard and R. H. Britnell, eds., The McFarlane Legacy,
(1995)
Watts Henry VI, pp. 39-51 discuss Somnium Vigilantis, and the works
of Fortescue and Ashby. See also his ‘Ideas, Principles and
Politics’ in Pollard (ed.) Wars of the Roses (1995)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
A. Cromartie ‘Common Law, Counsel and Consent in Fortescue’s Political
Theory’, in , in Clark and Carpenter, eds., Fifteenth Century 4:
Political Culture (2004)
K. B. McFarlane essays on Worcester in England in the Fifteenth Century (1981)
C. T. Allmand & M. Keen, ‘History and the literature of war: the Boke of Noblesse
of William Worcester’ in C. Allmand (ed.), War, Government
and Power in Late Medieval France (2000)
Anne F. Sutton and L. Visser-Fuchs, Richard III’s Books: Ideals and Reality in the
Life and Library of a Medieval Prince (1997) (includes
discussions of several of the set-texts as well as of the literary
and political culture of the 1480s)
A. Gross The Dissolution of the Lancastrian Kingship (1996), for
discussion of the Somnium, Fortescue, Worcester and the
speech to the parliament of 1472-5
J. L. Watts ‘ “The Policie in Cristen Remes”: Bishop Russell’s
Parliamentary Sermons of 1483-4’, in S. J. Gunn and G. W.
Bernard, Authority and Consent in Tudor England (2002)
S.J. Gunn ‘Edmund Dudley and the Church’, Jnl Eccl. H, 51 (2000)
P. Strohm Politique (2005), for the Arrivall, Somnium, Fortescue and
other writings of the period.
Letters etc
C. F. Richmond The Paston Family in the Fifteenth Century: I, The First Phase
(Cambridge, 1990); II, Fastolf’s Will (1996); III, Endings
(2000)
H. Castor Blood and Roses: the Paston Family and the Wars of the Roses
(2004)
H. Castor The King, the Crown and the Duchy of Lancaster (2000), chs
on East Anglian politics.
C. Carpenter ‘The Stonor Circle in the Fifteenth Century’, in R.E. Archer
and S. Walker (eds.), Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval
England (1995)
See also the introductions to Carpenter’s edition of the Stonor letters and Kirby’s
edition of the Plumpton letters. For the context of the York House Books, see
Attreed’s introduction, and E. Miller, ‘Medieval York’, VCH Yorkshire: York
Parliamentary Material
Parliament Rolls of Medieval England (online resource: introductions to each roll)
Cultural Material
Richard Marks and Paul Williamson (eds.), Gothic Art for England, 1400–1547
(2003) includes essays on many of the buildings and other artforms
included among the set texts
T. Tatton-Brown ‘The Constructional Sequence and Topography of the Chapel
and College Buildings at St George’s in St George’s Chapel
Windsor in the Late Middle Ages, ed. C. Richmond and E.
Scarff (2006)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
C. Wilson ‘The Designer of Henry VII’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey’ and
R. Marks, ‘The Glazing of Henry VII’s Chapel, Westminster
Abbey’ in The Reign of Henry VII, ed. B. J. Thompson (1995)
Westminster Abbey: the Lady Chapel of Henry VII, ed. T. Tatton-Brown and R.
Mortimer (2003)
P. Fleming ‘Telling Tales of Oligarchy in the Late Medieval Town’, in
Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England, ed. M.
Hicks (2001), comments on the York pageant
A. Allan ‘Yorkist Propaganda: Pedigree, prophecy and the “British
History” in the Reign of Edward IV’, in C. Ross (ed.),
Patronage, Pedigree and Power in Later Medieval England
(1979). See also J. Hughes, Arthurian Myths and Alchemy : the
Kingship of Edward IV (2002), Griffiths, ‘Sense of Dynasty’
and P. Morgan, ‘“Those Were the Days”: a Yorkist Pedigree
Roll’, in Estrangement, Enterprise and Education in Fifteenth
Century England, ed. S. D. Michalove and A. Compton Reeves
(1998), for more on pedigrees.
G. Kipling Enter the King: Theatre, Liturgy and Ritual in Medieval Civic
Triumph (1998)
S. Anglo Images of Tudor Kingship (1992)
See also the introductory material and/or surrounding comment in works listed in
the set texts.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 1 : The 1450s
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of items 1-2, 9-10, 14, 16, 20, 22-4, 27, 32.
Secondary Sources
G. L. Harriss Shaping the Nation, relevant chapters (for an introduction and
outline)
J. L. Watts Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship, ch. 7
R. A. Griffiths ‘The sense of dynasty in the reign of Henry VI’ in Patronage,
Pedigree & Power ed. Ross
M.K. Jones ‘Somerset, York and the Wars of the Roses’, EHR, 105, (1989)
R. A. Griffiths ‘Local Rivalries and National Politics the Percies, the Nevilles
& the Duke of Exeter 1452–55’, Speculum, 43 (1968)
G. L. Harriss ‘Marmaduke Lumley & the Exchequer Crisis of 1446–9’ in
Aspects of Late Medieval Government and Society, ed. J G
Rowe (1986)
M. H. Keen ‘The End of the Hundred Years War: Lancastrian France and
Lancastrian England’ in M Jones & M Vale (eds.) England and
her Neighbours … Essays Presented to P. Chaplais (1989)
M.K. Jones ‘Edward IV, the Earl of Warwick and the Yorkist Claim to the
Throne’ Historical Research, 70 (1997)
Questions to Consider
• Why did the problems of the 1450s produce conflict between the magnates?
• If ‘war was desired by no-one’ (McFarlane), why was it so hard to get peace?
• Were there ‘Lancastrians’ and ‘Yorkists’ in the 1450s?
Background/Further Reading
National politics
B. P. Wolffe ‘Acts of Resumption in the Lancastrian Parliaments, 1399–
1456’, EHR, 73 (1958)
M. Bohna ‘Armed forced and civil legitimacy in Jack Cade’s Revolt,
1450’, EHR, 118 (2003).
R. A. Griffiths ‘Richard of York’s intentions in 1450 and the origins of the
Wars of the Roses’, Jnl.Med.Hist., 1 (1975)
M. A. Hicks ‘From Megaphone to Microscope: The Correspondence of
Richard Duke of York with Henry VI, 1450’, Jnl.Med.Hist. 25
(1999)
C. A. J. Armstrong ‘Politics and the Battle of St Albans, 1455’, Bull.Inst.Hist.Res.,
33 (1960)
J.R. Lander ‘Henry VI and the Duke of York’s second Protectorate’, BJRL,
43 (1960–1) and in Crown and Nobility
G. L. Harriss ‘The Struggle for Calais: an aspect of the rivalry between
Lancaster and York’, EHR, 75 (1960)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
C. F. Richmond ‘The nobility and the Wars of the Roses, 1459–61’,
Nott.Med.Stud., 21 (1977)
Local and national politics
R.L. Storey The End of the House of Lancaster (1966)
C. Carpenter Locality and Polity: a Study of Warwickshire Landed Society,
1401–1499 (1992)
H. Castor The King, the Crown and the Duchy of Lancaster: Public
Authority and Private Power, 1399–1461 (2000)
M. Cherry ‘The struggle for power in mid-fifteenth-century Devonshire’,
in R.A. Griffiths (ed.), Patronage, the Crown and the Provinces
(1981)
S.J. Payling ‘The Ampthill dispute: a study in aristocratic lawlessness and
the breakdown of Lancastrian government’, EHR, 104 (1989)
A. J. Pollard North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses: Lay
Society, War and Politics, 1450–1500 (1990)
R. A. Griffiths ‘Gruffydd ap Nicholas and the fall of the House of Lancaster’
in his King and Country (1991) or Welsh History Review, 2
(1965)
C. M. Barron ‘London and the Crown, 1451-61’, in J. R. L. Highfield and R.
Jeffs, eds., The Crown and the Local Communities … (1981)
J. L. Bolton ‘The City and the Crown, 1456-61’, London Jnl., 12 (1986)
Important individuals
R. A. Griffiths The Reign of King Henry VI (1981)
B. P. Wolffe Henry VI (1981) (and see ‘The Personal Rule of Henry VI’ in
Chrimes, Ross and Griffiths, ed., Fifteenth Century England
(1972))
P.A. Johnson Duke Richard of York, 1411–1460 (Oxford, 1988)
M. Hicks Warwick the Kingmaker (Oxford, 1998)
D. Dunn ‘Margaret of Anjou, Queen Consort of Henry VI: A
Reassessment of her Role; 1445–53’, in Crown, Government
and People, ed. R E Archer
H. E. Maurer Margaret of Anjou: Queenship and Power in Late Medieval
England (Woodbridge, 2003)
Remember the new DNB too: www.oxforddnb.com, available through Oxlip.
See also the reading for classes 5-7.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 2 : 1461-71
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of items 2-4, 6, 8, 11-12, 15-17, 22-4, 27, 29-30, 32-3.
Secondary Sources
C. D. Ross Edward IV (1974), chs. 3-7, pp. 414-26.
B. P. Wolffe review of Ross, Edward IV, EHR, (1976), pp. 369-74.
C. Carpenter The Wars of the Roses, ch. 8
M. A. Hicks ‘Edward IV, the Duke of Somerset and Lancastrian Loyalism in
the North’, in his Richard III and his Rivals (1991) or Northern
History, 20 (1984)
M. A. Hicks ‘The Changing Role of the Wydevilles in Yorkist Politics to
1483’, in Patronage, Pedigree and Power, ed. C. Ross (1979).
M. Hicks Warwick the Kingmaker (1998), chs. 8-11, and (for Clarence)
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10542?docPos=3
B. P. Wolffe The Royal Demesne in English History (1971), pp. 143-80.
A. F. Sutton ‘Sir Thomas Cook and his “Troubles”: an Investigation’,
Guildhall Studies in London History, 3 (1978) (this is on open
access in Duke Humfrey)
C. S. L. Davies ‘The Wars of the Roses in European Context’ in Pollard, ed.
The Wars of the Roses (1995)
Questions to Consider
• How competently did Edward IV rule in the 1460s?
• Explain the alienation of Warwick and Clarence, and assess its importance.
• Was the Readeption doomed from the start?
Background/Further Reading
National and Local Politics under Edward IV, including 1470s
J. R. Lander ‘Marriage and Politics in the Fifteenth Century: the Nevilles
and the Wydevilles’, in his Crown and Nobility (1976) or Bull.
Inst. Hist. Res. (1963)
J. R. Lander ‘The Hundred Years War and Edward IV’s 1475 Campaign in
France’ in his Crown and Nobility (1976)
C. Carpenter Locality and Polity: a Study of Warwickshire Landed Society,
1401–1499 (1992)
A. J. Pollard North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses: Lay
Society, War and Politics, 1450–1500 (1990)
D. E. Lowe ‘Patronage and Politics: Edward IV, the Woodvilles and the
Council of the Prince of Wales, 1471-1483’, Bull. Board. Celt.
Studs., 29 (1980-2) also ‘The Council of the Prince of Wales
and the Decline of the Herbert Family during the Second Reign
of Edward IV’ in ibid., 27 (1976-8)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
M. A. Hicks ‘What Might Have Been: George Neville, Duke of Bedford’, in
his Richard III and his Rivals (1991)
C. F. Richmond ‘Fauconberg’s Kentish Rising of May 1471’, Eng. Hist. Rev.,
85 (1970)
Important individuals
M. A. Hicks Edward IV (2004)
M. A. Hicks False, Fleeting, Perjur’d Clarence. George, Duke of Clarence
(1980)
C. Carpenter ‘The Duke of Clarence and the Midlands: a Study of the
Interplay of Local and National Politics’, Midland History, 11
(1986)
J. Laynesmith Last Medieval Queens – for Queen Elizabeth
M. A. Hicks ‘Richard III as Duke of Gloucester: a Study in Character’,
Borthwick Paper, 70 (1986) or in his Richard III and his Rivals
M. A. Hicks ‘Dynastic Change and Northern Society: the Fourth Earl of
Northumberland’, in his Richard III and his Rivals (1991) and
Northern History, 14 (1978)
Remember the new DNB too: www.oxforddnb.com, available through Oxlip.
See also the reading for classes 4-7. Developments in government under Edward IV
are listed under class 4.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 3 : 1483-7
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of
Secondary Sources
Questions to Consider
• ?
• ?
• ?
Background/Further Reading
National and Local Politics, 1483-1509
R. E. Horrox Richard III. A Study in Service (1989)
C. Ross Richard III (1981)
J. Gillingham (ed.) Richard III. A Medieval Kingship (1993)
R. Horrox and P. W. Hammond, British Library Harleian Manuscript 433, 4 vols.
(1979-83). (See introduction, in vol. 1, for discussion of rule
between Edward IV’s death and Richard III’s usurpation.)
A. J. Pollard ‘The Tyranny of Richard III’, Jnl. Med. Hist., 3 (1977)
C. F. Richmond ‘1485 and All That, or What Was Going on at the Battle of
Bosworth?’ in P. W. Hammond, ed., Richard III. Loyalty,
Lordship and Law (1986)
E. W. Ives ‘Andrew Dymmock and the Papers of Anthony, Earl Rivers’,
Bull. Inst. Hist. Res., 41 (1968) (discusses context to the attack
on the Woodvilles in 1483)
R. Horrox, ed., Richard III and the North (1986)
C. S. L. Davies ‘Richard III, Brittany, and Henry Tudor, 1483-1485’,
Nottingham Med. Studs., 37 (1993)
C. S. L. Davies ‘Bishop John Morton, the Holy See and the Accession of Henry
VII’, EHR, 102 (1987)
R. F. Green ‘Historical Notes of a London Citizen, 1483-1488’, EHR, 96
(1981)
D. Grummitt ‘The Establishment of the Tudor Dynasty’, in A Companion to
Tudor Britain, ed. R. Tittler and N. Jones (2004)
D. Luckett ‘Patronage, Violence and Revolt in the Reign of Henry VII’, in
R. E. Archer, ed., Crown, Government and People in the
Fifteenth Century (1995) and see also ‘The Thames Valley
Conspiracies against Henry VII’, Histl. Res., 68 (1995)
M. Bennett Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke (1987)
M. Bennett ‘Henry VII and the Northern Rising of 1489’, EHR, 105 (1990)
I. Arthurson The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy, 1491-1499 (1994)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
D. Dunlop ‘The “Masked Comedian”: Perkin Warbeck’s Adventures in
Scotland and England from 1495 to 1497’, Scott. Histl. Rev., 70
(1990)
I Arthurson ‘The Rising of 1497…’, in J. T. Rosenthal and C Richmond,
eds., People, Politics and Community (1987)
S. Cunningham ‘Henry VII and Rebellion in North-Eastern England, 1485-
1492…’, Northern History, 32 (1996)
C. Carpenter ‘Henry VII and the English Polity’, in The Reign of Henry VII,
ed. B. Thompson (1995)
M. Condon ‘Ruling Elites in the Reign of Henry VII’, in Patronage,
Pedigree and Power, ed. Ross, and also The Tudor Monarchy,
ed. J. Guy (1997)
T. B. Pugh ‘Henry VII and the English Nobility’, in G. W. Bernard, ed.,
The Tudor Nobility (1992)
J. M. Currin ‘Henry VII and the Treaty of Redon (1489): Plantagenet
Ambitions and Early Tudor Foreign Policy’, History, 81
(1996), and also‘“To Traffic With War”? Henry VII and the
French Campaign of 1492’, in The English Experience in
France c. 1450-1558: War, Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange,
ed. D. Grummitt (2002)
P. R. Cavill ‘Debate and Dissent in Henry VII’s Parliaments’,
Parliamentary History 25 (2006)
G. R. Elton ‘Henry VII: Rapacity and Remorse’, Hist Jnl., 1 (1958), and
see also J. P. Cooper’s response in HJ 1959 and Elton’s reply in
HJ 1961
S. J. Gunn ‘The Accession of Henry VIII’, Histl. Res., 64 (1991)
Important individuals
S. B. Chrimes Henry VII (1974) – 2nd edn (1999) has valuable preface by
George Bernard
R. A. Griffiths and R. S. Thomas, The Making of the Tudor Dynasty, 3rd edn (2005)
J. Laynesmith The Last Medieval Queens. English Queenship, 1445-1503
(2004)
M. Jones and M. Underwood, The King’s Mother. Lady Margaret Beaufort,
Countess of Richmond and Derby (1992)
D. J. Guth ‘Climbing the Civil-Service Pole during the Civil War: Sir
Reynold Bray (c.1440-1503)’ in Estrangement, Enterprise and
Education in Fifteenth-Century England, ed. S. D. Michalove
and A. Compton Reeves (1998)
M. M. Condon ‘From Caitiff and Villain to Pater Patriae: Reynold Bray and
the Profits of Office’, in Profit, Piety and the Professions in
Later Medieval England, ed. M. A. Hicks (1990)
D. Luckett ‘Crown Patronage and Political Morality in Early Tudor
England: the Case of Giles, Lord Daubeney’, EHR, 110 (1995)
Remember the new DNB too: www.oxforddnb.com, available through Oxlip.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 4 : Reconstruction under Edward IV and
Henry VII
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of
Secondary Sources
S. J. Gunn, Early Tudor Government, 1485-1558 (1995)
? bit of Carpenter, Wars of Roses?
?? S. Gunn, ‘“New men” and “new monarchy” in England, 1485-1524’, in
Powerbrokers in the Late Middle Ages, ed. R. Stein (Turnhout,
2001)
Questions to Consider
• ?
• ?
• ?
Background/Further Reading
Court and Household
J. Stratford (ed.) The Lancastrian Court (2003), overviews by Harriss and Watts
S. J. Gunn ‘The Court of Henry VII’, in The Court as a Stage, ed. S. J.
Gunn and A. Janse (2006)
D.A.L. Morgan ‘The House of Policy: the political role of the Late Plantagenet
Household, 1422–1485’, in D. Starkey, ed., The English Court
from the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War (1987)
D. Starkey ‘Court History in Perspective’ and ‘Intimacy and Innovation:
the Rise of the Privy Chamber, 1485-1547’ in idem, ed., The
English Court… (1987)
D. Starkey ‘Court and Government’, in Revolution Reassessed, ed.
Coleman and Starkey
Council and Government
J. R. Lander ‘The Yorkist Council and Administration, 1461-85’, EHR 73
(1958) and ‘Council, Administration and Councillors, 1461-
85’, Bull. Inst. Hist. Res., 32 (1959)
J. L. Watts ‘A newe ffundacion of is crowne: Monarchy in the Age of
Henry VII’ in B.J. Thompson (ed.), The Reign of Henry VII
(Stamford, 1995)
M. Condon ‘Ruling Elites in the Reign of Henry VII’, in Patronage,
Pedigree and Power, ed. Ross, and also The Tudor Monarchy,
ed. J. Guy (1997)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
M. Condon ‘Henry VII’s Council Ordinance of 1491/2’, in Kings and
Nobles in the Late Middle Ages, ed. R. A. Griffiths and J.
Sherborne (1986)
N. Pronay ‘The Chancellor, the Chancery and the Council at the end of the
Fifteenth Century’, in British Government and Administration
…, ed. H. Hearder and H. R. Loyn (1974)
P. R. Cavill ‘Debate and Dissent in Henry VII’s Parliaments’,
Parliamentary History 25 (2006)
Finance
M. Jurkowski ‘Parliamentary and Prerogative Taxation in the Reign of
Edward IV’, Parliamentary Hist., 18 (1999)
R. E. Horrox, ed. ‘Financial Memoranda of the Reign of Edward V’ in Camden
Miscellany XXIX, Camden Soc., 5th ser., 34 (1987)
B. P. Wolffe The Royal Demesne in English History (1971)
G. L. Harriss ‘Aids, Loans and Benevolences’, Histl. Jnl., 6 (1963)
D. Grummitt ‘Henry VII, Chamber Finance and the “New Monarchy”: Some
New Evidence’, Hist. Res., 72 (1999)
Law, Justice and Landowning
D. A. L. Morgan ‘The King’s Affinity in the Polity of Yorkist England’, Trans.
Roy. Hist. Soc., 5th ser., 23 (1973)
M. A. Hicks ‘The 1468 Statute of Livery’, Hist Res., 64 (1991)
J. M. W. Bean From Lord to Patron: Lordship in Late Medieval England
(1989), ch. 6, for regulation of livery and retaining
S. E. Thorne, ed. Prerogativa Regis (1949), for Constable’s 1495 ‘reading’ of
this medieval law text, the idea of the royal prerogative and
Henry VII’s adventures with ‘fiscal feudalism’. See also M.
McGlynn, The Royal Prerogative and the Learning of the Inns
of Court (2003) and W. C. Richardson, ‘The Surveyor of the
King’s Prerogative’, EHR, 56 (1941)
J. R. Lander ‘Bonds, Attainder and Forfeiture’ in his Crown and Nobility
and see also M. Hicks, ‘Attainder, Resumption and Coercion,
1461-1509’, Parliamentary History, 3 (1984) and C. J.
Harrison, ‘The Petition of Edmund Dudley’, EHR, 87 (1972);
see also S. Cunningham, ‘Henry VII and Rebellion in North-
Eastern England, 1485-1492…’, Northern History, 32 (1996)
for the deployment of bonds to control the localities
D. Luckett ‘Crown Office and Licensed Retinues in the Reign of Henry
VII’, in Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England, ed. R.
Archer and S. K. Walker (1995) and see also A. Cameron, ‘The
Giving of Livery and Retaining in Henry VII’s Reign’,
Renaissance and Modern Studies 18 (1974)
S. J. Gunn ‘Sir Thomas Lovell: (c.1449-1524): A New Man in a New
Monarchy?’ in The End of the Middle Ages?, ed. Watts
J. A. Guy The Cardinal’s Court (1977) (covers the king’s council acting
as a court)
See also the reading for week 7.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Propaganda and Magnificence
A. Allan ‘Royal Propaganda and the proclamations of Edward IV’,
BIHR, lix (1986)
B. Thompson, ed. The Reign of Henry VII (1995), various essays, but esp. Wilson
and Marks
S. Anglo Spectacle, Pageantry and Early Tudor Policy (Oxford, 1969)
S. Anglo Images of Tudor Kingship (1992)
See also the section on ‘Court and household’, above, and the reading for class 6,
below.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 5 : The Practicalities of Warfare
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of
Secondary Sources
Questions to Consider
• ?
• ?
• ?
Background/Further Reading
Overviews
A. Goodman The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society,
1452–97 (1981)
A. Goodman The Wars of the Roses: the Soldiers’ Experience (2005)
P. Haigh The Military Campaigns of the Wars of the Roses (1995)
A. W. Boardman The Medieval Soldier in the Wars of the Roses (1998)
Types of warfare, weaponry and fortifications
D. Grummitt ‘The Defence of Calais and the Development of Gunpowder
Weaponry in England in the Late Fifteenth Century’, War in
History, 7 (2000)
M. Strickland and R. Hardy, The Great Warbow: from Hastings to the Mary Rose
(2005)
H. L. Turner Town Defences in England and Wales (1971)
C. F. Richmond ‘The Earl of Warwick’s Domination of the Channel and the
Naval Dimension to the Wars of the Roses, 1456-1460’,
Southern History, 20-21 (1998-9)
M. W. Thompson The Decline of the Castle (1987).
Specific engagements
A. W. Boardman The Battle of Towton (1994)
P. W. Hammond The Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury (1993)
M. Jones Bosworth, 1485: Psychology of a Battle (2002)
M. Bennett The Battle of Bosworth (1985)
There are many other treatments of battles from the period, often written by nonmedievalist
military historians and local historians. Use Google to find them.
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 6 : Reform and Common Weal: Political
Ideas and Public Debate
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of items 1, 5, 7-8, 9-21, 27 (note especially the parliaments of
1461, 1484 and 1485), 35-6
Secondary Sources
J. L. Watts ‘Ideas, Principles and Politics’ in Pollard (ed.) Wars of the
Roses (1995)
C. Richmond ‘Patronage and Polemic’, in J.L. Watts (ed.), The End of the
Middle Ages? England in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries
(Stroud, 1998)
C. Ross ‘Rumour, Propaganda and Public Opinion in the Wars of the
Roses’ in Patronage, Crown & the Provinces, ed. R A
Griffiths (1981)
J. L. Watts ‘The Pressure of the Public on Later Medieval Politics’, in The
Fifteenth Century IV, ed. L. Clark and C. Carpenter (2004)
D. Starkey ‘Which Age of Reform?’, in C. Coleman and D. Starkey (eds.)
Revolution Reassessed (1986)
A. F. Sutton ‘ “A Curious Searcher for our Weal Public”: Richard III, Piety,
Chivalry and the Concept of the Good Prince’, in P. W.
Hammond, ed., Richard III. Loyalty, Lordship and Law (1986)
J. L. Watts ‘ “A Newe ffundacion of is Crowne”: Monarchy in the Age of
Henry VII’ in Thompson, B. J., ed., The Reign of Henry VII,
(1995)
S. Anglo Images of Tudor Kingship (1992), ch. 5.
Questions to Consider
• Was the ‘common weal’ just the unavoidable catch-phrase of the ruling king’s
critics and opponents?
• Do you detect a consensus for reform in the sources? If so, what was it?
• How much, and in what ways, did the Wars matter to those who were not
aristocratic landowners?
Background/Further Reading
Ideas and Political Culture
S. B. Chrimes English Constitutional Ideas in the Fifteenth Century
(Cambridge, 1936)
W. H. Dunham & C. T. Wood ‘The right to rule in England: depositions and the
kingdom’s authority, 1327–1485’, Amer. Hist. Rev., lxxxi
(1976); and reply by J. W. McKenna, ‘The myth of
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
parliamentary sovereignty in late medieval England’, EHR, 114
(1979)
C. A. J. Armstrong ‘The Inauguration Ceremonies of the Yorkist Kings and their
Title to the Throne’, TRHS, 4th ser., 30 (1948), or in his
England, France and Burgundy
A. Gross The Dissolution of the Lancastrian Kingship (1996)
M. Bennett ‘Edward III’s Entail and the Succession to the Crown, 1376–
1471’, EHR cxii (1998)
J. Hughes Arthurian Myths and Alchemy : the Kingship of Edward IV
(2002)
A. B. Ferguson The Indian Summer of English Chivalry (1960)
S. J. Gunn ‘Chivalry and the Politics of the Early Tudor Court’ in Chivalry
in the Renaissance, ed. S. Anglo (1990)
S. J. Gunn ‘War, Dynasty and Public Opinion in Early Tudor England’, in
Authority and Consent in Tudor England: Essays presented to
C. S. L. Davies, ed. G. W. Bernard, S. J. Gunn (2002)
A. J. Pollard Imagining Robin Hood (2004)
D. Starkey ‘England’ in R. Porter and M. Teich, The Renaissance in
National Context (1992)
R. F. Green Poets and Princepleasers (1980), esp. ch. 5.
E. W. Ives The Common Lawyers of Pre-Reformation England (1983) and
see also J. Baker, The Oxford History of the Laws of England,
VI, 1483-1558 (2003) and M. McGlynn, The Royal Prerogative
and the Learning of the Inns of Court (2003)
J. I. Catto ‘Conclusion: Scholars and Studies in Renaissance Oxford’, in
Catto and R. Evans, ed., History of the University of Oxford II.
Late Medieval Oxford (1992)
D. Rundle ‘Humanism before the Tudors: On Nobility and the Reception
of the studia humanitatis in Fifteenth-Century England’, in J.
Woolfson, ed., Reassessing Tudor Humanism (2002) and ‘On
the Difference between Virtue and Weiss: Humanist Texts in
England during the Fifteenth Century’, in: D.Dunn, ed., Courts,
Counties and the Capital in the Later Middle Ages (1996)
D. Rundle ‘Was there a Renaissance Style of Politics in Fifteenth-Century
England?’ in Authority and Consent in Tudor England, ed.
Gunn and Bernard
J.-P. Genet ‘Ecclesiastics and Political Theory in Late Medieval England:
the End of a Monopoly’, in The Church, Patronage and
Politics in the Fifteenth Century, ed. R. B. Dobson (1984)
M. K. McIntosh Controlling Misbehaviour in England, 1370-1600 (1998)
Individual Texts and Thinkers
P. E. Gill ‘Politics and Propaganda in fifteenth century England; the
polemical writings of Sir John Fortescue’, Speculum, xlvi
(1971)
C. Taylor ‘Sir John Fortescue & the French Polemical Treatises of the
100 Years War’, EHR cxiv (1999)
A. Cromartie ‘Common Law, Counsel and Consent in Fortescue’s Political
Theory’, in , in Clark and Carpenter, eds., Fifteenth Century 4:
Political Culture
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
K. B. McFarlane essays on Worcester in England in the Fifteenth Century (1981)
C. T. Allmand & M. Keen, ‘History and the literature of war: the Boke of Noblesse
of William Worcester’ in C. Allmand (ed.), War, Government
and Power in Late Medieval France (Liverpool, 2000)
Popular Politics and Popular Revolts
I. M. W. Harvey Jack Cade’s Rebellion of 1450, (1991)
I. M. W. Harvey ‘Was there Popular Politics in Fifteenth-Century England?’ in
The McFarlane Legacy, ed. Britnell and Pollard
M. Bohna ‘Armed forced and civil legitimacy in Jack Cade’s Revolt,
1450’, EHR, 118 (2003).
J. N. Hare ‘The Wiltshire Risings of 1450: Political and Economic
Discontent in mid-Fifteenth Century England’, Southern
History, (1982)
C. F. Richmond ‘Fauconberg’s Kentish Rising of May 1471’, EHR, 85 (1970)
M. Hicks ‘The Yorkshire Rebellion of 1489 Reconsidered’, in his
Richard III and his Rivals (1991)
I Arthurson ‘The Rising of 1497…’, in J. T. Rosenthal and C Richmond,
eds., People, Politics and Community (1987)
M. L. Bush ‘Tax Reform and Rebellion in Early Tudor England’, History
(1991)
A. Fletcher and D. MacCulloch, Tudor Rebellions, 5th ed. (2004)
A. Wood Riot, Rebellion and Popular Politics in Early Modern England
(2002)
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 7 : Power in the Localities
Essential
Set Texts/Primary Sources
Relevant sections of
Secondary Sources
Questions to Consider
• ?
• ?
• ?
Background/Further Reading
Overviews
C. F. Richmond ‘Ruling classes and agents of the state: formal and informal
networks of power’, Journal of Historical Sociology, 10 (1997)
D. A. L. Morgan ‘The King’s Affinity in the Polity of Yorkist England’, Trans.
Roy. Hist. Soc., 5th ser., 23 (1973)
C. Carpenter ‘Law, Justice and Landowners in Late Medieval England’, Law
and History Rev., 1 (1983)
Mechanics
M. A. Hicks ‘Lord Hastings’ Indentured Retainers?’, in his Richard III and
his Rivals (1991)
S. Cunningham ‘Henry VII and Rebellion in North-Eastern England, 1485-
1492…’, Northern History, 32 (1996) (for bonds and
recognisances)
M. Jones and S. Walker, ‘Private Indentures for Life Service in Peace and War,
1278-1476’, in Camden Miscellany XXXII, Camden Soc., 5th
ser., 3 (1994), introduction.
J. M. W. Bean From Lord to Patron: Lordship in Late Medieval England
(1989), ch. 6, for regulation of livery and retaining
D. Luckett ‘Crown Office and Licensed Retinues in the Reign of Henry
VII’, in Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England, ed. R.
Archer and S. K. Walker (1995)
Regions
A. J. Pollard North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses: Lay
Society, War and Politics, 1450–1500 (Oxford, 1990)
C. Carpenter Locality and Polity. A Study of Warwickshire Landed Society,
1401-1499 (1992)
D. E. Lowe ‘Patronage and Politics: Edward IV, the Woodvilles and the
Council of the Prince of Wales, 1471-1483’, Bull. Board. Celt.
Studs., 29 (1980-2) also ‘The Council of the Prince of Wales
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
and the Decline of the Herbert Family during the Second Reign
of Edward IV’ in ibid., 27 (1976-8)
R. A. Griffiths ‘The Provinces and Dominions in the Age of the Wars of the
Roses’, in Estrangement, Enterprise and Education in
Fifteenth-Century England, ed. S. D. Michalove and A.
Compton Reeves (1998)
C. E. Moreton The Townshends and their World. Gentry, Law and Land in
Norfolk, c.1450-1551 (1992)
G. W. Bernard The Power of the Early Tudor Nobility (1985)
S.M. Wright The Derbyshire Gentry in the Fifteenth Century (1983)
Towns
C. M. Barron ‘London and the Crown, 1451-61’, in J. R. L. Highfield and R.
Jeffs, eds., The Crown and the Local Communities … (1981)
J. L. Bolton ‘The City and the Crown, 1456-61’, London Jnl., 12 (1986)
R. E. Horrox ‘Urban Patronage and Patrons in the Fifteenth Century’, in R.A.
Griffiths, ed., Patronage, the Crown and the Provinces (1981)
Particular Individuals/Disputes
M. A. Hicks ‘Dynastic Change and Northern Society: the Career of the
Fourth Earl of Northumberland, 1470-89’, Northern History, 14
(1978)
M. E. James ‘A Tudor Magnate and the Tudor State: Henry, Fifth Earl of
Northumberland’, in his Society, Politics and Culture: Studies
in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986)
D. Luckett ‘The Rise and Fall of a Noble Dynasty: Henry VII and the
Lords Willoughby de Broke’, Histl. Res. 69 (1996)
R. W. Hoyle ‘The Earl, the Archbishop and the Council: the Affray at
Fulford, May 1504’, in Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval
England. Essays presented to Gerald Harriss, ed. R. Archer, S.
Walker (1995)
S. J. Gunn ‘Sir Thomas Lovell: (c.1449-1524): A New Man in a New
Monarchy?’ in The End of the Middle Ages?, ed. Watts
M. K. Jones ‘Sir William Stanley of Holt: Politics and Family Allegiance in
the Late Fifteenth Century’, Welsh Hist. Rev., 14 (1988)
See also the reading for classes 1-4
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This Bibliography is © University of Oxford, History Faculty 2007
Class 8 : Overview
Essential
There is no specially-assigned reading, but re-read selectively, peruse your
notes and essays and spend time thinking about the questions below.
Questions to Consider
• How directly were the conflicts of the 1480s and 90s related to those of the
1450s and 60s?
• What seem to you to be the most important factors in explaining the Wars of
the Roses?
• What part did the Wars of the Roses play in the development of English
kingship?

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